Turkish Migration Stories Then and Now: Connecting the German-Turkish and Syrian-Turkish Experience
image credit from ‘In Pursuit of Belonging’ by Susan Beth Rottmann | Berghahn Books
by Susan Beth Rottmann, Özyeğin University
While researching Syrian migration between Turkey and Europe for RESPOND, it has rapidly become clear to me that the questions of how to host and integrate Syrians, which Turkey is now confronting, must be understood within the broader context of Turkish citizens’ understanding of their European-ness, which I explore in detail in my new book, In Pursuit of Belonging: Forging an Ethical Life in European-Turkish Spaces (2019).
Recent years have seen Turkey strengthening trade and investment ties with Arab countries and trying to assert itself as a leader in the Middle East, while reviving interest in the Ottoman period domestically and abroad (Altunişik and Martin 2011; Walton 2010). These efforts are in part a response to the apparent end of the prospect of Turkey joining the EU or even cooperating with European leaders on basic issues. Turkey’s very acceptance of Syrians can to some extent be traced to its ambitions in the Middle East in the wake of souring relations with Europe, and thus it makes sense that leaders have referred to Syrians as welcomed, “religious brothers.” But, a turn away from Europe does not mean that European belonging no longer matters.
Syrian migrants, who number 3.6+ million as of 2019 and who are the subject of deal-making and financial transfers between Turkey and the EU, dominate the news in Turkey today. But, just a few years ago, the big migration story was the 3 million Turks in Germany and the growing number of returnees searching for professional opportunities in cosmopolitan Istanbul or retiring to seaside resorts. Everyone wanted to know: How are they changing Turkey? How do they and others interpret their time in Europe? And, what does their experience signify about Turkey’s European-ness? Although German-Turks are in the news less today, these questions remain no less relevant, not only to understanding Turkey generally, but also to understanding the discourses and policies applied to Syrian migrants.
My new book, In Pursuit of Belonging (2019), examines German-Turkish migration against the theme of Turkey’s European identity. I show how experience in Germany creates new expectations for order among neighbors and respect and equality among citizens, which are also tied to anxieties about belonging in communities, the nation and beyond—to Turkey’s place on the world stage. I argue that experience in Europe prompts a desire to improve or criticize Turkey, because Turks judge themselves, their modernity and their value, in large part through the eyes of Europeans. This excerpt illustrates how this criticism is expressed by some in their communities:
Cemil explained, “German-Turks become more rule-oriented and irritable. They see different rules in Turkey and Germany, and they choose to put Turks down. This is not good. You might even call this losing their identity. Is it really that they are better than us?” (pg. 125)
My book explores how Europe is a source of deep longing as well as deep apprehension for Turkish citizens by portraying the experiences of a returnee I call Leyla and juxtaposing her experiences with those of other returnees. Leyla is seen as someone with a valuable perspective, and she is sought out for advice on childrearing, confronting neighbor’s gossip and other topics. “People listen to me, because I have seen Europe,” (pg. 121) Leyla says. But, she is also criticized as Germanized for unusual actions for her social class, such as an interest in theatre or museums or a willingness to discuss religion in mixed gender groups. She explained, “When I talk about theatre around here, people say that this is European and Western and that I am crazy (deli).” (pg. 116). Her knowledge of Europe is admired, but her European ways are condemned.
The connections between the German-Turkish experience and today’s migration politics in Turkey can be elucidated with a quick look at recent political agreements, debates surrounding the integration issue and prominent discourses on Syrians in Turkey.
Europe remains important to Turks, even if the prospect of losing Turkish identity is threatening. It is no accident that the EU-Turkey Statement of March 2016 linked Turkey’s continued hosting of Syrians (and preventing their travel to Europe) to visa-free travel for Turks in Europe (Elitok 2019). Turks’ inability to travel in Europe like other Europeans or Americans without the need for a lengthy and complicated visa application is highly indicative of its citizens’ European non-belonging. While many Europeans take for granted their easy access to Turkey for vacation, Turks deeply yearn for the same ability to freely travel to Europe, not only to be tourists, but to feel accepted.
It is not surprising that the word “integration” has become taboo in Turkey given the history of Turkish migration to Germany, and the many negative and critical reports about Turks’ (lack of) integration into Germany. Studies often implicitly portrayed Turks as a threat to German society and as people who failed to modernize or to succeed in the European milieu due to being backwards or Muslim.
For example, in an article titled, “Unsuccessful Migration Stories,” appearing in the leftist Turkish newspaper Radikal, Kerem Çalışkan argued that “the reality” of German-Turkish migration is poverty, inadequate education and high unemployment. In January 2009, Turkish newspapers reported that a new study showed Turks to be the “least integrated immigrant group in Germany.” Such news stories are rarely critical of Turks’ treatment in Germany, but rather emphasize that migrants were unable or unwilling to fit in to Germany. For example, one non-migrant, Emre, offered these comments in response to my questions about his views on this study, “These results don’t surprise me. My aunts lived in Germany for 20 years and did not learn a single word of German. Can you believe that? They made absolutely no effort to integrate.” (pg. 17)
German-Turks perceived integration failure is also seen as part and parcel of Turkey’s failure to become European or to be accepted by Europeans depending on one’s perspective.
Instead, with regards to Syrians’ integration, Turkish political leaders prefer the word “uyum,” which roughly translates to “social harmony” and takes into account a two-way active exchange between hosts and migrants. This word was even incorporated into the 2013 Law on Foreigners and International Protection that set out integration guidelines. Originally, integration and language courses were foreseen as requirements for foreigners, but the law drafters removed these requirements from the final version, due in part to “Turkey’s emigration past and Turkish migrants’ often mixed experiences with the integration policies of, for the most part, European countries” (Açıkgöz and Ariner 2014). While conducting interviews with NGOs and government officials who work on the issue of Syrian migration, we were repeatedly admonished not to use the word “integration,” because it not accepted in the Turkish context.
Of course, the word “integration” is also taboo in today’s Turkey because it has become unviable politically as a concept in the face of rising tensions in local communities. Anti-Syrian rhetoric (e.g. Suriyeliler Defolsun) is even being compared to the anti-Turkish rhetoric historically faced by German-Turks (e.g. Türken Raus) (Guven 2019).
The parallels between Turkish belonging in Europe and Syrian belonging in Turkey has even been openly stated by leaders. When President Recep Tayyip Erdogan spoke on the possibility of granting citizenship to Syrians in 2016, he directly compared Syrians in Turkey to Turks in Germany who may now receive citizenship under certain conditions (Ozer 2016). In sum, the situation of Syrians in Turkey and Turkey’s responses must be viewed in terms of this broader historical context of Turkey’s struggle over European belonging and the tribulations and lack of acceptance of German-Turks that I discuss in In Pursuit of Belonging.
References
Açıkgöz, Meral and Hakki Onur Ariner. 2014. Turkey’s new law on foreigners and international
protection: An introduction. Turkish Migration Studies Group at Oxford Briefing Paper 2.
Altunişik, Melha Benli and Lenore G. Martin. 2011 Making Sense of Turkish Foreign Policy in
the Middle East under AKP. Turkish Studies 12(4): 569-587.
Elitok, Seçil Paçacı. 2019. Three Years on: An Evaluation of the EU-Turkey Refugee Deal
MiReKoc Working Papers 4.
Guven, Banu 2019. "Suriyeliler Defolsun" eşittir "Türken Raus." T24. Retrieved from:
https://t24.com.tr/haber/banu-guven-suriyeliler-defolsun-esittir-turken-raus,832535.
Özer, Verda. 2016. Erdoğan details dual citizenship for Syrians. Hurriyet Daily News. July 11.
Available here: http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/erdogan-details-dual-citizenship-for-syrians-101428.
Walton, Jeremy. 2010. “Practices of Neo-Ottomanism: Making Place and Space Virtuous in
Istanbul.” In Orienting Istanbul: Cultural Capital of Europe? Deniz Göktürk, Levent Soysal and İpek Türeli, eds. Routledge.